Frankenstein.
Author: Mary Shelley (1797 – 1851)
Published: 1818
Genre: Gothic
In general terms, Gothic literature employs dark and picturesque scenery, startling and melodramatic narrative devices, and an atmosphere of exoticism, mystery, fear, and dread. Often, a Gothic novel or story will revolve around a large, ancient house that conceals a terrible secret or serves as the refuge of an incredibly frightening and threatening character. Gothic writers have also used supernatural elements, touches of romance, well-known historical characters, and travel and adventure narratives—aspects of the paranormal and every day to strike fear into the reader.
The Enlightenment thinkers believed mankind was progressing toward something better and that their scientific discoveries led to a brighter, more enlightened future. However, in the novel Frankenstein, Mary Shelley shows how dangerous it is to disregard intuition and the human element of society to pursue progress. She shows what happens when a person creates something with good intentions but is not prepared for the consequences or when he does not care about it. Victor Frankenstein loses sight of the human side of his creation, allowing it to become an abomination—the very thing he wanted to avoid with his creation.
Mutability
A part of this poem by Shelley's husband is quoted in Frankenstein, which intends to attack the Enlightenment idea that man was a predictable and rationally controllable machine. This poem describes the variable nature of our world and the fleeting lives of human beings.
“I.
We are as clouds that veil the midnight moon;
How restlessly they speed and gleam and quiver,
Streaking the darkness radiantly! yet soon
Night closes round, and they are lost forever:—
II.
Or like forgotten lyres whose dissonant strings
Give various response to each varying blast,
To whose frail frame no second motion brings
One mood or modulation like the last.
III.
We rest—a dream has power to poison sleep;
We rise—one wandering thought pollutes the day;
We feel, conceive or reason, laugh or weep,
Embrace fond woe, or cast our cares away:—
IV.
It is the same!—For, be it joy or sorrow,
The path of its departure still is free;
Man’s yesterday may ne’er be like his morrow;
Nought may endure but Mutability.”
Articles
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein by Stephen Kern (article) - The story bears on current moral debates about cloning and the responsibility of a scientist for his discoveries. Frankenstein creates a human being, and as a result, he and his family are destroyed. But the dark consequences of Frankenstein’s actions do not stem from his brilliant science per se but from the emotional reaction of him and others who all respond negatively to the creature’s frightening appearance. Still, an underlying message of the novel is that the creation of a human being by unnatural means is a dangerous undertaking fraught with perils from human emotions and sensibilities, if not from the displeasure of a god.
Frankenbook (website) - a collective reading and collaborative annotation experience that allows readers to trace the novel's scientific, technological, political, and ethical dimensions and learn more about its historical context and enduring legacy.
Frankenstein Online Annotations (website) - online, chapter by chapter annotations to help you read and understand the novel.
What Makes a Monster and What Makes a Man? Exploring the Relationship between the Creator and the Creation in Three Gothic Novels by Veronica B. Rosenberger (pdf download) - Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein tells the tale of men and monsters. The story presents its interpretation of the creation process pursued by a creator. Victor Frankenstein is motivated by pride, scientific curiosity, and the hope of healing human faults to build a massive creature out of corpse parts that become so ugly in life that no one can treat this monster with anything but fear and rage. This creation becomes a monster because he has no choice, yet if the creator is genuinely responsible for the beings to which they give life, does that not make them the monster? The work of Shelley functions as a clear warning. If a creator fails to provide his creation with the responsibilities called for by the creation process, the creature will fail. And, if the creation fails, so does the creator.
A Guide to Gothic Literature: The Top 10 Books You Have to Read by Reedsy (article) - Gothic literature shocks you from your everyday experiences but is also enthralling, and you may wish to remain in its realms of fright forever. This article traces the history of Gothic literature and introduces ten essential reads that have haunted us for centuries, including Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.
The Essential Enlightenment by Douglas J. Den Uyl, Jacob T., Levy, and Chris W. Surprenant (website) - The political ideas that fully came together under the name “liberal” in the early nineteenth century—the ideas we often now refer to as “classical liberalism”—emerged out of significant debates and developments from the late 1600s to the late 1700s, part of the broad European intellectual movement of that era that came to be known as “the Enlightenment.”
Allusions
At the time in history when Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein, it was common practice for authors to reference other pieces of literature that they assumed their readers would have come across. These allusions provide a deeper meaning to her text as common themes are developed and highlighted. An allusion can connect a piece of writing to the context of the larger world and help the reader understand the emotions and thoughts the writer is trying to convey. The three significant texts Mary Shelley alludes to are the myth of Prometheus and two long poems: Paradise Lost and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Let’s take a look at these allusions:
John Milton’s Paradise Lost, Found in Frankenstein by Stuart Curran - written in 1667, Paradise Lost is a continuing intellectual and mythic reference point for Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, linking Victor to God, the Monster to Adam, and the uncompleted female creature to Eve. Victor also links himself to Satan when he says, “Like the archangel who aspired to omnipotence, I am chained in an eternal hell.” One of the books the Monster finds in the forest that helps him learn to read is a copy of Paradise Lost.
The Influence of Paradise Lost on Frankenstein (article) - John Milton's epic poem “Paradise Lost” is widely considered one of the greatest works of English literature. This work has profoundly influenced many subsequent works of literature, including Mary Shelley's classic novel Frankenstein. We can see how Mary Shelley responds to John Milton’s idea of hell as a state of mind and the state of being fallen.
Why you should re-read Paradise Lost by Benjamin Ramm (article) - it tells the story of the war for heaven and man’s expulsion from Eden. It ambitiously attempts to comprehend the loss of paradise from the perspectives of the fallen angel Satan and man, fallen from grace. Even to readers in a secular age, the poem is a powerful meditation on rebellion, longing, and the desire for redemption. Paradise Lost inspired Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (poem + audio) - published in 1798, this poem became a prominent literary romantic piece. It significantly influenced Mary Shelley as she used it as a literal and metaphorical translation in Frankenstein. Lines 59-60 of part one of the poem state, “Instead of the cross, the albatross about my neck was hung.” The albatross hanging from the mariner’s neck symbolizes the weight of his sin. Coleridge frames a comparison between the cross of Jesus and the albatross, ultimately alluding to the Bible. Shelley also references the poem in chapter 5, page 60, and in Walton’s second letter, where he states he “shall kill no albatross” and specifically mentions the Ancient Mariner. Shelley also quotes the poem when he describes his loneliness and fear of his creation. This is seen when Frankenstein says that he “doth walk in fear and dread, and having once turned round, walks on, and turns no more his head; because he knows a frightful fiend doth close behind him tread.” Read more.
Prometheus, the Friend of Man - the story of Prometheus holds a special place in Geek mythology. This son of a Titan is regarded as one of the great benefactors of humankind, the bringer of fire. He is known as the first great scientist of Greek mythology who, in various versions, teaches medicine and science, steals fire from Zeus, and gives it to humanity. Prometheus creates man from clay and steals fire from the Gods to make his creation more godlike. Similarly, Victor Frankenstein trespasses on what God's role should be when he created the Monster. Prometheus is continuously punished for his actions, and Victor and the Monster live lives of torment. Light and fire are significantly brought together in the electric force that offers the Monster life.
Fire and Frankenstein by Katie Tuohy (article) - Frankenstein is, at its core, a representation of the duality of scientific progress. Mary Shelley’s warning that the pursuit of knowledge loses its honor and becomes dangerous when pushed to the extreme manifests itself through the symbolism of fire. The ability of fire to provide warmth from a distance and the converse effect of burning when one gets too close appear multiple times in the book and even relate to the alternative title of the book, The Modern Prometheus.
When the Creature discovers fire, he has not been alive more than a few hours, and he naively thinks that touching the fire will not burn him. He is comfortable with the fire because it provides light and heat, but that comfort turns into wariness when he experiences pain. Shelley associates the light and heat with knowledge that illuminates mysteries of the universe and helps humanity understand themselves and their surroundings. However, she conveys that touching the fire will cause pain and destruction, just as seeking to control science can lead to greed for power or an abandonment of social responsibility, such as Victor exhibits.
The ancient Greek mythological tale of Prometheus tells of fire as a cause of human life. Shelley incorporates this meaning into the book by bringing the creature to life using the lightning bolt, representing a force outside human control - only the natural world can create life, despite the illusions of Victor and other scientists of the time. Shelley’s choice of symbolism and figurative language explains the potential science offers society and community while also warning of the adverse effects of humanity attempting to control it.
Historical Context - The Enlightenment Era and Gothic Writing
The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement, primarily based in Europe, that spanned about a century—from the mid-to-late 1600s to the late 1700s. It was a time of major intellectual upheaval, characterized by the rise of reason and the scientific method as tools for understanding the world and bringing about progress.
A brief explanation of the history of Gothic literature and some of its characteristics.
Brief Summary of Frankenstein
In 1815, Lord Byron challenged a few literary guests he had gathered in his house on Lake Geneva: Who could write the most chilling ghost story? This question sparked an idea in eighteen-year-old Mary Shelley, who crafted the story of Frankenstein over the next few months. Iseult Gillespie shares everything you need to know to read Mary Shelley’s classic novel.
How to Read Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (10 Tips)
Books
Mary Shelley's timeless gothic novel presents the epic battle between man and monster at its most fantastic literary pitch. In trying to create life, the young student Victor Frankenstein unleashes forces beyond his control, setting into motion a long and tragic chain of events that brings Victor to madness. How he tries to destroy his creation, as it destroys everything Victor loves, is a powerful story of love, friendship, scientific hubris, and horror. Based on the third edition of 1831, this Penguin Classics edition, with an introduction and notes by Maurice Hindle, contains all the revisions Mary Shelley made to her story, as well as her 1831 introduction and Percy Bysshe Shelley’s preface to the first edition.
The story of Frankenstein’s creator is strange, romantic, and tragic, as deeply compelling as the novel. Mary ran away to Lake Geneva with the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley when she was sixteen. It was there, during a cold and wet summer, that she first imagined her story about a mad scientist who brought a corpse back to life. Success soon followed for Mary, but also great tragedy and misfortune. Catherine Reef brings this passionate woman, brilliant writer, and forgotten feminist into crisp focus, detailing a remarkable life before and after the publication of her iconic masterpiece. Includes index.
In Paradise Lost, Milton produced a poem of epic scale, conjuring up a vast, awe-inspiring cosmos and ranging across huge tracts of space and time, populated by a memorable gallery of grotesques. And yet, in putting a charismatic Satan and naked, innocent Adam and Eve at the center of this story, he also created an intensely human tragedy on the Fall of Man. Written when Milton was in his fifties - blind, bitterly disappointed by the Restoration, and in danger of execution - Paradise Lost's apparent ambivalence towards authority has led to intense debate about whether it manages to 'justify the ways of God to men'’ or exposes the cruelty of Christianity.
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley audiobook. A student discovers the secret of animating lifeless matter and creates the monster by assembling body parts. Rejected by society, the monster vows revenge on his creator.
In 1816, at 18, Mary Shelley awoke from a nightmarish dream that inspired her famous novel Frankenstein. But while her story pleasantly spooked literary friends, it was far beyond the tastes of Mary’s time. So, where did Mary draw the themes for her monster tale? And how did Frankenstein break through the harsh critics, make it onto the silver screen, and become the iconic green monster we know and love?
What ideas shaped this famous story of a scientist who successfully animates a corpse before ruing the consequences? What does the novel say about the importance of human relationships in our society? And how does the story connect to Frank Capra’s Christmas film, It’s a Wonderful Life? Professor James Chandler of the University of Chicago, author of An Archaeology of Sympathy: The Sentimental Mode in Literature and Cinema, talks about the fascinating world of Mary Shelley, her novel Frankenstein, and the films they inspired.
This is a discussion of the texts that influenced Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. It discusses the parallels with the Prometheus myth and the links between the character of Victor and the various themes in Paradise Lost.
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